Chapter 13. Summary
13.1 Experimental founding of the epola
The epola model of space is established on the basis of three crucial experiments: Michelson-Morley's (1887), Rutherford's (1911) and Anderson's (1932). Numerous other experiments prove and substantiate this model. Actually, there is not a single relevant experimental fact which would deny the epola model or which could not be explained on the basis of this model.
The Michelson-Morley experiment (Section 1.3) is an unbeatable proof that the ether does not exist. Unfortunately, it is often presented as denying the existence of any material carrier of electromagnetic radiation. However, what was actually proven by this experiment is that
light emitted and received by earthy atomic bodies propagates with a velocity independent of Earth's motion around the Sun.
This excludes the existence of an etherous carrier, in which the motion would cause measurable winds. However, it does not deny the existence of a carrier of light, in which Earth's motion is unable to cause winds. Such is the epola, whose electrons and positrons are thousand times closer to one another than the electrons and nuclei of atoms of Earth and earthy bodies. Expecting that the motion of such bodies would cause winds in the epola is like expecting to catch sardines with a net, the threads of which are a hundred meters apart.
The velocity of light in the epola does not depend on the motions of its atomic sources and receivers (Sections 10.9–10.12), even if their velocities were to approach the limits allowed for atomic bodies (2.4 Mm/s, Section 9.6), which exceed the velocity of Earth by eighty times. Hence, the epola carrier of light is in full agreement with the results of Michelson-Morley's experiment. Moreover, the existence of the epola is the only physical explanation of these results.
Proof of the very low particle-density in atomic bodies was given by Rutherford. His experiments on the scattering of alpha-particles in atomic bodies proved that only a millionth of a billionth part of the volumes of atomic bodies is occupied by electrons and atomic nuclei. The rest of the volume, thus, practically all the volume, is 'empty'; as empty as space itself and penetrable to 'dense' particles.
The much higher particle-density of the 'empty' space follows from Anderson's experiments, in which electron-positron pairs are obtained from any point in space,and the number of obtained pairs directly depends on the density of the gamma-ray energy flux (Chapter 4). Then comes the fact that electrons alone or positrons alone cannot be created or annihilated by submission or removal of energies, even in the thousand MeV range. This proves that electrons and positrons do exist in space but in a bound form. They are, therefore, indetectible by usual means, and 1.02 MeV is just the binding energy of an electron-positron pair to its counterparts in space.
Quantum effects in electromagnetic radiation can be physically explained only by a lattice form of its carrier. It follows from Anderson's experiment that electrons and positrons are the building particles of the carrier. Hence, the closest solid-state analog of this lattice is shown to be the ionic sodium-chloride (rocksalt) crystal lattice (Section 5.1). Using this structural analogy, with the known electron and positron mass and the known binding energy, we calculated the lattice constant of the epola (4.4 femtometer, ± 0.5 fm; Section 5.6). This is a hundred thousand times shorter than the distances between atoms in solids.
13.2 Calculations and derivations with tbe epola model of space
Based on the analogy between the epola and the rocksalt lattice, we use the formula for the velocity of bulk deformation waves in an unbounded crystal to calculate the velocity of such waves in the epola (Section 6.5). It turns out that
the velocity of bulk deformation waves in the epola is the vacuum light velocity .
This fact strengthens our arguments in favor of the epola as carrier of electromagnetic radiation. A slight transform of the velocity formula for bulk deformation waves in the epola yields Einstein's mass-energy relation (Section 6.8). Einstein's formula is therefore a result of the lattice structure of the carrier of electromagnetic radiation; it expresses energy relations for the freeing of masses from the epola and for their entrapment, not for their real creation out of energy or true conversion into energy.
The energy and momentum transfer process in an epola wave (electromagnetic wave) is described either as their transfer among the half-wave deformation clusters (Section 7.2) or by the motion of photons (Section 7.3).
This enabled the derivation of Planck's law (Section 7.4), which was postulated in 1900 and always remained a postulate.
Our presentation of epola waves and derivation of Planck's law allowed to introduce and calculate numbers, characterizing the half-wave deformation clusters. For the Compton wave (of 0.51 MeV photon energy, equal to the binding energy of an epola particle) we found that in the cluster there is at any instant one photon, and the cluster contains 11 million epola particles. The clusters of longer wavelength radiation or of epola compressibility waves (Section 7.6) are spherical, the numbers of epola particles and photons in them are proportional to the cube of the wavelength, and at any instant, they contain one photon per every 11 million particles. The clusters of the shorter-wavelength epola impact waves (Section 7.7) are ellipsoids and the number of epola particles in them decreases very rapidly with wavelength, however they always contain one photon. In the half-wave cluster of the shortest epola wave (Section 7.10), there is one only epola particle, carrying the single photon of the calculated 140 MeV "cutoff" energy.
The de Broglie wavelength of the electron is derived as the wavelength of a real epola wave, caused in the epola by the motion of the electron (Section 8.1). Such waves, accompanying the motions of dense particles, propagate with the velocity of light and pre-form the epola for the motion. Hence, the epola becomes vacuum-transparent for particles moving much slower than the accompanying wave.
The accompanying waves of sublumic particles (i.e., having velocities close to the light velocity) do not have sufficient time to pre-form the epola ahead. The particle has to push apart the epola particles on its way, losing the more energy the faster it moves. This resistance of the epola to sublumic motion is accounted by assuming an increase in the 'effective' mass of the particle (Sections 8.11, 8.12), which includes also the photon mass of the accompanying wave. This allows a very simple derivation of Einstein's equation for the dependence of mass on velocity (Section 8.13). Hence, this experimentally proven relation, laboriously derived by Einstein with four-vectors, Lorentz transforms and other heavy cannons of relativity is actually a simple result of the epola structure of space.
Our derivation of the expressions for the masses and momenta of photons and half-wave deformation clusters (Sections 8.8. 8.9) also serves as a physical basis in the derivation of the uncertainty principle (Section 8.7), which was postulated by Heisenberg 60 years ago and has remained an unexplained pos-tulate all these years.
The epola model enables the derivation of Bohr's postulated conditions and formulas for the allowed orbits of the hydrogen atom (Section 9.1). The interaction of radiation with moving atomic bodies, discussed in Section 10.9, leads to the derivation of formulas for the Doppler effect (Sections 10.10, 10.11) and the independence of the velocity of electromagnetic radiation of the motions of its atomic sources and receivers (Section 10.12). This was proven by Michelson-Morley's experiment and stated in Einstein's second postulate (though with illegal generalizations onto any emitting body and requests of a universal unconditional constancy of the vacuum light velocity; Section 2.1).
The epola is shown to be the carrier of not only the electric and magnetic interactions but also of the gravitational interaction. The gravitational interaction is derived from the differences in the short-range repulsive interaction between epola particles, which itself is a derivative of the electromagnetic interaction. This explains the 37 orders of magnitude lower strength of the gravitational interaction (Sections 12.1-12.3).
13.3 Epola explanations of the otherwise inexplicable
The proportionality of the photon (or quantum) energy to the radiation frequency, postulated by Planck in 1900 (Section 3.1), contradicts the fact that vibrational and wave energy is proportional to the amplitude-square and independent of frequency; hence, it was not and cannot be understood in quantum physics. In the epola model, the photon is a quasi-particle representing the per-particle energy and momentum transferred in the epola wave from one epola particle to the next in line (Section 7.3). While the vibrational energy of each epola particle in the wave is proportional to the amplitude-square, the per-particle energy of the half-wave deformation cluster is shown to be inversely proportional to the wavelength; and so is the energy, transferred in the wave by the photon-holding epola particles. Hence, this energy, i.e., the energy of the photon is proportional to the radiation frequency (Section 7.4).
The corpuscular properties of electromagnetic waves, unexplainable in quantum physics, are due to the fact that the waves result from coherent vibrations of epola electrons and positrons. The energy and momentum transferred by a photon to a dense free particle is actually the energy and momentum transferred to the free particle by the last epola electron or positron on the path of the photon. The wave properties of particles are due to the epola deformation-clusters around them, when at rest, and to the epola accompanying waves, when they are moving. The clusters or accompanying waves are the physical basis for the quantum-mechanical 'waves of matter'. They cause the diffraction and interference phenomena and define the probability of finding the particle (because the cluster or wave really is around the particle; Section 8.5). Hence, we obtain a full physical explanation of the particle-wave duality principle (Section 8.6) postulated and never explained in quantum physics.
Einstein's postulated principle of frequency invariance is shown to be a simple result of the epola structure of space. The frequency is kept stable by the huge masses of quadrillions of epola particles which participate in the wave and vibrate with this frequency (Section 8.9). A full physical explanation is given to the stability conditions of allowed elliptic orbits, the meaning of the four quantum numbers (Sections 9.1, 9.2) and to the exclusion principle (Section 9.4), postulated by Pauli in 1925 and unexplained until now.
The observed zero-point energy of helium atoms, along with other unexplained zero-point effects, is presented (Section 5.13) as due to random vibrations of epola particles. These vibrations establish an epola temperature, which in 'our' surrounding epola region is about 3 degrees centigrade above the absolute zero temperature. Hence, the mysterious 3 K background radiation observed everywhere on our skies is presented as the thermal radiation of the surrounding epola (Sections 5.14, 11.2).
Absorption, also non-linear, of electromagnetic radiation, is revealed as partially due to epola random vibrations (Sections 10.1, 10.2). Physical explanations are then given to the interaction of radiation with the electron gas in metals and semiconductors (Section 10.5) and to transparency and reflectivity of solids in different regions of the radiation spectrum (section 10.6). The reduction of the velocity of visible light in atomic matter, as compared with the velocity of X-rays and gamma-rays, is explained by the strong coupling between visible light and orbital electrons, leading to the absorption of the visible light and its re-emission (Section 10.7).
13.4 Epola dismissals, replacements and restorations
To establish the epola model, we had to disprove and turn over two of our natural perceptions: of a dense continuous atomic matter, which we replaced by its experimentally proven emptiness and discreteness, and of the emptiness of space, which we replaced by a dense population of bound electrons and positrons, forming a discrete lattice. The penetrability of space to atomic matter is due to the fact that neither is continuous and that both are built of femtometer-size particles positioned at distances, which exceed their diameters.
Thanks to this, we could explain the results of Michelson-Morley's experiment without the unproven and antinatural requests of relativity. First, we rehabilitate our natural perception of the three-dimensional space, raising it up again to the rank of proven physical reality. Hence, we dismiss the never-proven existence of a four, five, eleven, 506 or any -dimensional space. Naturally, we do not question the legality of using such imaginary spaces in calculations and do gratefully acknowledge the working results of such use. However, working results do not make the spaces real, just as real results obtained with complex numbers do not turn these numbers real. We may go farther and say that the real results obtained in education with "Alice in Wonderland" do not turn the wonderland real, not even with Disney's 'working models'.
Second, we dismiss the postulated universal constancy of the vacuum light-velocity; replaced by the velocity of bulk deformation waves in the epola, it depends on "local" conditions in the epola. We also dismiss the postulated universal validity of laws and magnitudes established in our backyard, even if obtained with astrophysical data; we limit their validity to 'our' uniform epola region. Physical laws and magnitudes, established and measured on Earth, may possibly be useful and applicable to other regions, but the a priori tyrranic demand of their universal validity and unchangeability is rejected. Hence, the epola model restores the natural rights of all autonomous regions of the universe to manage their affairs according to local conditions and legislature.
We dismiss the interpretation of Einstein's formula as expressing the equivalence of mass and energy and restore the mass-conservation law to its full pre-relativistic glory. We reject the Big Bang interpretations of the 3 K radiation of our skies and of the Hubble redshift as due to the runaway of nebulae. The 3 K radiation is the radiation of the surrounding epola, due to the random thermal vibrations of its particles, and the Hubble redshift is due to three more physical phenomena, in addition to the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect is suspected to shorten the wavelength in radiation spectra of some nebulae, because then the up to 50 percent diversities in the Hubble constant are physically explained. Hence, not everything is running away from us, the universe is not necessarily expanding or exploding and the Big Bang theory is dismissed as a groundless fantasy.
13.5 Epola suggestions and propositions
We mention first the suggestion to measure the epola temperature from zero-point and other low-temperature effects (Section 5.14). This is connected with establishing a rating-factor for efforts needed to reach and maintain each particular temperature below 4.2 K. The plot of this factor against the temperaure should have a special point at the epola temperature.
Our half-wave deformation-cluster presentation of epola waves (Chapters 6 and 7), which enables the derivation of Planck's law and the calculation of numbers characterizing the waves in all spectral regions, can be successfully applied to waves in any elastic media.
Of interest might be the suggested possibility of superlumic motion (Sections 8.14 - 8.16) and the spectral characteristics of small and large avotons in such motion. This includes the unified approach to the Cherenkov radiation here and to the accompanying wave in sublumic motion, which both are the response of the epola to the motion of avotons.
The derived velocity-limits of atomic bodies (Section 9.16) cannot be proven experimentally, because we are very far from the ability to reach such velocities. So low are also the known velocities of planets and comets. It might however become possible to accelerate ions to velocities, sufficient to turn them into higher order ions and so to check our approximate formula. The "runaway" velocities of celestial bodies, calculated from their redshifts, have little to do with the real velocities of these objects relative to Earth (Sections 11.6–11.10) and cannot be considered.
It might be possible to prove experimentally the proposed orbit-adjustment redshift (or blueshift) in the emission spectra of atomic radiation sources moving parallel to Earth (Section 9.7) but with a different velocity.
The non-linear absorption of radiation on epola random vibrations could be verified by the proposed measurement of the fading of 60 Hz radiation (Section 10.2). The effect of epola distortion on the propagation of light can be tested by the proposed measurement in a micrometer-wide channel between massive bodies (Section 1O.8). This would also allow us to check our proposed treatment of the bending of light in a way similar to the treatment of the mirage.
Our explanation of the limited lifetime of free positrons by the abundance of free electrons in our region of the epola suggests that there might be regions with an abundance of free positrons and atomic anti-matter. The possibilities are also suggested of the creation of atomic bodies, as well as bodies of nuclear matter and black holes by local collapses in the epola. Hence, atomic bodies could be created in the epola "on premises", without collecting atoms from vast volumes of the universe, as is assumed in the "gravitational collapse" hypotheses (Sections 11.5, 11.11).